This resource corresponds to Days 1 & 3.

Many physical changes occur in the brain and body as a result of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use (e.g., NIDA, 2004; Edelman and Changeux, 2001; Harvey and Kosofsky, 1998). These physical changes can make learning and concentration more difficult and negatively affect school performance. Weakened immune systems, as well as dependency and withdrawal symptoms, can also lead to increased absences. Several studies showing the link between substance use and/or abuse and academic achievement are reviewed below:

• A study examining the associations among substance use, violent/delinquent behavior, and academic achievement among middle and high school students found that students with even moderate involvement with substance use and violence/delinquency had poorer overall achievement than groups of students with little or no involvement in these behaviors (Mandell et al., 2002).
  
  
• A study assessing the relationship between adolescent consumption of marijuana, cocaine, alcohol, and cigarette consumption and academic achievement found that increased frequency of cigarette smoking and being under the influence of marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol had a negative impact on adolescent academic achievement (Jeynes, 2002).
  
  
• A study was conducted to determine factors most likely to influence academic expectations and achievement among high school students. The three factors that had the greatest influence on academic expectations were students’ relationship with mother, academic achievement, and alcohol use. The three factors that had the greatest influence on academic achievement were cocaine use, marijuana use, and academic expectations (Sanders et al., 2001).
  
  
• A comparison of grade 7 non-smokers, experimenters, and smokers revealed that early smokers were at higher risk for low academic achievement and behavioral problems at school than non-smokers. The study also found that by grade 12, smokers were at least 3 times more likely than non-smokers to regularly use tobacco and marijuana, use hard drugs, sell drugs, have multiple drug problems, drop out of school, and experience early pregnancy and parenthood. Early experimenters were at significantly greater risk for these problems as well, although to a lesser extent than smokers. Many of these problems were evident as early as grade 7 (Ellickson et al., 2001).
  
  
• An investigation into the relationship between community drug use, as measured by drug-related arrests and academic achievement, was conducted in the state of Alabama. Results indicated that higher levels of drug use were correlated with lower academic achievement. The study concluded that “increased drug usage in a community affects in some way the children of those users and in turn has some detrimental effect on their academic achievement” (Johnson, 2003).
  
  
• A study assessing the relationship of academic performance to alcohol abuse or dependence among college freshman found that 62.5 percent of the students who met criteria of alcohol dependence failed in their first year, compared to 50 percent of the students who did not report these drinking problems (Aertgeerts and Buntinx, 2002).
  
  
• The effects of substance abuse on academic achievement and social behavior were also assessed in a study of Connecticut middle school students. The study showed that alcohol use had a significant effect on academic achievement and that students who reported drinking on school days or nights and/or being in a car with an alcohol-impaired driver, were more likely to have lower academic achievement than other students (Abelson, 2000).

Research also shows an inverse relationship between substance abuse and academic achievement. For example:

• A longitudinal study of adolescents from 8th to 12th grade that examined the links among academic achievement, school bonding, school misbehavior, and cigarette use found that school misbehavior and low academic achievement contribute to increased use of cigarettes over time. These findings support the perspective that students with school misbehaviors and poor academic achievement are more at risk for cigarette use during adolescence and that prevention programs that decrease these risk factors are more likely to be effective in lowering cigarette use (Bryant et al., 2000a; Bryant et al., 2000b).
  
  
• National longitudinal data show that, regardless of ethnic background or social class, youth who have problems with schoolwork are more likely than others to be involved in every health risk studied, including alcohol, sexual intercourse, and weapon-related violence (Blum et al., 2000).
  
  
• A study assessing factors that determine the age of onset of drinking in at-risk youth found that deficits in reading achievement was one of several factors leading to early onset of drinking. Other factors include familial density of alcoholism (number of alcoholic first- and second-degree relatives), compromised visual and auditory abilities, and reduced postural control (Hill et al., 2000).

References

Abelson, K. A. (2000). The effects of substance abuse upon eighth-grade Connecticut middle school students: Its impact upon academic achievement and the social behavior of the students. Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol 61(1–A), Jul 2000, 94, US: University Microfilms International.

Aertgeerts, B. and Buntinx, F. (2002). The relation between alcohol abuse or dependence and academic performance in first-year college students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31(3), 223–225.

Blum, R. W., Beuhring, T., and Rinehard, P. M. (2000). Protecting teens: Beyond race, income and family structure. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Adolescent Health, University of Minnesota. From Learning First Alliance, Every Child Learning: Safe and Supportive Schools, November, 2001.

Bryant, A. L., Schulenberg, J., Bachman, J. G., O'Malley, P. M., and Johnston, L. D. (2000a). Understanding the links among school misbehavior, academic achievement and cigarette use: A national panel study of adolescents. Prevention Science, 1, 71–87.

Bryant, A. L., Schulenberg, J., Bachman, J. G., O'Malley, P. M., and Johnston, L. D. (2000b). Acting out and lighting up: Understanding the links among school misbehavior, academic achievement, and cigarette use. Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper No. 46. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.

Edelman, G.M. and Changeux, J., (eds.) (2001). The Brain. Transaction Publishers, 2001.

Ellickson, P. L., Tucker J. S., and Klein D. J. (2001). High-risk behaviors associated with early smoking: results from a 5-year follow-up. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28(6), 465–73.

Harvey, J. A. and Kosofsky, B. E., Eds. (1998). Cocaine: Effects on the Developing Brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 846, New York Academy of Sciences.

Hill, S. Y., Shen, S., Lowers, L., and Locke, J. (2000). Factors predicting the onset of adolescent drinking in families at high risk for developing alcoholism. Biological Psychiatry, 48(4),265–75.

Jeynes, W. H. (2002). The relationship between the consumption of various drugs by adolescents and their academic achievement. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse. 28(1), 15–35.

Johnson, D. M. (2003). An investigation of the effects of community drug use on academic achievement in the public school systems of the State of Alabama. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64(2-A), 2003, 397, US: Univ Microfilms International.

Mandell, D. J., Hill, S .L., Carter, L., Brandon, R. N. (2002). The Impact of Substance Use and Violence/Delinquency on Academic Achievement for Groups of Middle and High School Students in Washington. Seattle, Washington: Human Services Policy Center, Washington University, Seattle.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2004). NIDA InfoFacts: Heroin. NIDA, National Institute of Health.

Sanders, C. E., Field, T. M., and Diego, M. A. (2001). Adolescents' academic expectations and achievement. Adolescence. 36(144), 795–802.